知識是符合文明方向的，人類對物質世界以及精神世界探索的結果總和。知識，也沒有一個統一而明確的界定。但知識的價值判斷標準在于實用性，以能否讓人類創造新物質，得到力量和權力等等為考量。知識的概念是哲學認識論領域最為重要的一個概念, 有一個經典的定， 以下是為大家整理的關于入黨理論知識20192篇 , 供大家參考選擇。

入黨理論知識20192篇

【篇1】入黨理論知識2019

《翻譯理論與實踐》考試理論部分復習提綱

一、翻譯定義:

1、 張培基——翻譯就是用一種語言把另一種語言所表達的思維內容準確而完整地重新表達出來的語言活動。

3、 劉宓慶——翻譯的實質就是語際的意義轉換。

4、 王克非——翻譯就是將一種語言文字所蘊含的意思用另一種語言文字表達出來的文化活動。

5、 泰特勒——好的翻譯應該就是把原作的長處完全地移注到另一種語言,以使譯入語所屬國家的本地人能明白地領悟、強烈地感受,如同使用原作語言的人所領悟、所感受的一樣。

6、 費道羅夫——翻譯就就是用一種語言把另一種語言在內容與形式不可分割的統一中所業已表達出來的東西準確而完全地表達出來。

7、 卡特福德——翻譯的定義也可以這樣說:把一種語言(Source Language)中的篇章材料用另一種語言(Target Language)中的篇章材料來加以代替。

8、 奈達——翻譯就就是在譯入語中再現與原語信息最切近的自然對等物,首先就意義而言,其次就就是文體而言。

“Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style、” ---Eugene Nida

紐馬克——通常(雖然不能說總就是如此),翻譯就就是把一個文本的意義按作者所想的方式移譯入另一種文字(語言)。“Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language、” --- Peter Newmark

10、 “Translation is the expression in one language (or target language譯入語) of what has been expressed in another language (source language 原語), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences、” --- Dubois

12、 13、Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text、

二、翻譯標準

1、 翻譯的標準概括為言簡意賅的四個字:“忠實(faithfulness)、通順(smoothness)”。忠實指的就是忠實于原文。通順指的就是譯文的語言必須合乎規范、通俗易懂。

2、 嚴復對翻譯曾經提出“信(faithfulness)、達(expressiveness)、雅(elegance)”的標準:“譯事三難:信、達、雅。求其信已大難矣,顧信矣不達,雖譯猶不譯也,則達尚焉。”

3、 “泰特勒三原則”:(1)That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work;(2)That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original;(3)That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition、”(1)譯作應完全復寫出原作的思想;(2)譯作的風格與手法應與原作屬于同一性質;(3)譯作應具備原作所具有的通順。”(譚載喜,2006)泰特勒指出,這三項原則就是好的翻譯所必備的條件,它們次序的排列就是恰當的、自然的,就是按重要順序排列的,如果在不得已的情況下要犧牲某一個原則就要注意到它們的次第與比較上的重要性,決不能顛倒主次,以犧牲思想內容的忠實來求得譯文的優美與流暢。

5、 奈達提出了著名的“動態對等”。她對翻譯所下的定義: 所謂翻譯, 就是在譯語中用最切近而又最自然的對等語再現源語的信息, 首先就是意義, 其次就是文體。Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style、 (Nida & Taber,1969:12)、

這一定義明確指出翻譯的本質與任務就是用譯語再現源語信息, 翻譯的方法用最切近而又最自然的對等語。

6、 紐馬克“文本中心”論:紐馬克把要翻譯的對象瞧成文本,并根據語言的功能把文本分為表達型、信息型與召喚型三大類。表達型包括嚴肅的文學作品、聲明與信件等;信息型包括書籍、報告、論文、備忘錄等;召喚型包括各種宣傳品、說明書與通俗小說等。她認為不同的文本應該用不同的翻譯方法(紐馬克把翻譯方法分為語義翻譯與交際翻譯兩種。前者強調忠實于原作“原作者”;后者強調忠實于譯作“讀者”),不同的評價標準,不同的“等效”要求。

8、 其她翻譯標準

劉重德: 信達切

許淵沖:信達優;美化之藝術,創優似競賽;(三美論:意美、音美、形美;等化、深化、淺化;知之、好之、樂之;發揮譯入語優勢)

傅雷:重神似不重形似

錢鐘書:化境

魯迅:凡就是翻譯,必須兼顧兩面:一則當然力求其易解,一則保存著原作的豐姿。

林語堂:音美、意美、神美、氣美、形美

郭沫若:好的翻譯等于創作

三、翻譯過程

理解與表達就是翻譯的兩個主要步驟。譯者對原文的正確理解在翻譯過程中至關重要;譯者的表達須具有準確力與表現力,語言須具有生動性與形式美。

分析原文就就是細致處理詞位的所指意義與聯想意義、研究句法與語篇結構。理解與領會原文就是從事無論何種翻譯的基本功力。如果譯者確實理解了原文的涵義,又能得心應手地駕馭譯語,那么翻譯就就是一個很自然的駕輕就熟的過程。

翻譯的過程可以簡單分為:理解—表達---校核三個階段,或理解---表達兩個階段。

四、翻譯分類:

2、 從涉及到的符號來瞧,翻譯可分為語內翻譯(intralingual translation)(通過同一語言中的一些語言符號解釋另一些符號,如把古漢語譯成現代漢語),語際翻譯(interlingual translation)(通過一種語言符號解釋另一種語言符號,如把英語譯成漢語),符際翻譯(intersemiotic translation)(通過非語言的符號系統解釋語言符號或用語言符號解釋非語言符號,如用手勢語解釋一則新聞。)

3、 從翻譯的手段來瞧,翻譯可分為口譯、筆譯與機器翻譯。

4、從翻譯的題材來瞧明,翻譯可分為專業性翻譯(翻譯法律、科技文獻、專業學術論著等)、文學翻譯(翻譯小說、詩歌、戲劇等文學作品)與一般性翻譯(翻譯各種應用文與新聞報道等)。

5、 從翻譯方式上來瞧,翻譯可分為全譯、摘譯與編譯。

泰特勒(Tytler,1748-1814)的翻譯理論與思想主要見于《論翻譯的原則》一書。該書就是西方翻譯理論的第一部專著,在書中,泰特勒提出了著名的翻譯三原則:1、譯文應完整地再現原文的思想內容(That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work、); 2、譯文的風格、筆調應與原文的性質相同(That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original、);3、譯文影響原文一樣流暢(That the translation should have all the ease of the original composition、)。

八、常用翻譯方法、策略與技巧

1、 直譯與意譯(Literal translation and Free translation)

英語與漢語的語言結構與文體結構有相同的一面,漢譯時可照譯,即所謂“直譯”——既忠實原文內容,又符合原文的語言與文體結構。由于人們在感情,在對客觀事物的感受及社會經歷等方面會有相似之處,英漢語言表達中有少量相同或近似的表達方式,這些表達方式的字面意義,形象意義相同或近似,隱含意義相同,也就就是說,這些表達方式的字面意義與形象意義所傳達出的文化信息就是相同的,可以互譯。

“意譯”則從意義出發,只要求將原文大意表達出來,不需過分注重細節,但要求譯文自然流暢。由于文化因素的影響,在翻譯時無法保留原語的字面意義與形象意義,可將原文的形象更換成另一個譯文讀者所熟悉的形象,從而轉達出原文的語用目的,譯出隱含意義。英漢兩種語言不同的發展歷史,民族文化,風俗習慣造成了兩個民族獨特的語言與獨特的表達方式。因此,翻譯時必須對兩種語言文化基礎有基本的認識,不能逐字翻譯。凡語言都有習慣表達,言外之意。在深入領會原作的精神實質的前提之下,不拘泥于原作的字面形式,創造性的表達原作思想,但不可添枝加葉,改變原作的風格。

注:在翻譯界通用的方法就是將“直譯”與“意譯”相互結合。任何一篇好的翻譯作品,并不就是單純的某一種翻譯方法貫穿始終,而就是在保持原文內容的準確性,不引起歧義的情況下,將這兩種翻譯方法在同一翻譯作品中并用,相得益彰。筆者對翻譯界的這種做法完全認同。筆者認為,兩種翻譯方法在任何一篇翻譯作品中都能并用的話,一定可以譯出一部優秀的翻譯作品。

2、 歸化與異化(domestication and foreignization)

異化與歸化就是在1995年由美國翻譯理論家勞倫斯·韋努蒂(Lawrence Venuti)在《譯者的隱形》(The Translator’s Invisibility)一書中提出來的。從歷史上瞧,異化與歸化可以視為直譯與意譯的概念延伸,但又不完全等同于直譯與意譯。直譯與意譯所關注的核心問題就是如何在語言層面處理形式與意義,而異化與歸化則突破了語言因素的局限,將視野擴展到語言、文化與美學等因素。按韋努蒂(Venuti)的說法,歸化法就是“把原作者帶入譯入語文化”,而異化法則就是“接受外語文本的語言及文化差異,把讀者帶入外國情景”。(Venuti,1995:20)由此可見,直譯與意譯主要就是局限于語言層面的價值取向,異化與歸化則就是立足于文化大語境下的價值取向,兩者之間的差異就是顯而易見的,不能混為一談。

歸化(domestication)就是指在翻譯中采用透明、流暢的風格,最大限度地淡化原文的陌生感的翻譯策略(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:43-44)。它應盡可能的使源語文本所反映的世界接近目的語文化讀者的世界,從而達到源語文化與目的語文化之間的“文化對等”。

異化(foreignization)就是指偏離本土主流價值觀,保留原文的語言與文化差異(Venuti,2001:240);或指在一定程度上保留原文的異域性,故意打破目標語言常規的翻譯(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:59)。它主張在譯文中保留源語文化,豐富目的語文化與目的語的語言表達方式。

用通俗的語言概括,即歸化法要求譯者向譯語讀者靠攏,采取譯語讀者習慣的譯語表達方式,來傳達原文的內容;異化法則要求譯者向作者靠攏,采取相應于作者使用的原語表達方式,來傳達原文的內容。

注:異化時不妨礙譯文的通順易懂,歸化時不失去原文的味道,同時,我們應堅持對語言形式采取歸化的策略,而對其文化因素進行異化處理。這樣,譯文作品可兼兩策略之長而避其短,使兩者有共同發展的空間。由此,在實際翻譯過程中歸化與異化應該就是相輔相成,并有互補的辯證統一關系。

翻譯理論知識概要

第一部分:翻譯術語

1、 Definitions of translation

Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language、 Being a very complicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe、 Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives、

(1)、 Linguistic Views on Translation

Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts、

Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language)、 (Catford, 1965: 20)、

Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory、 (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5)、

(2)、 Cultural Views on Translation

In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a communication of cultures, i、e、 translation is an "intercultural communication"; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", "acculturation", and "transculturation"、

翻譯不僅涉及語言問題,也涉及文化問題。譯者不僅要了解外國的文化, 還要深入了解自己民族的文化。不僅如此, 還要不斷地把兩種文化加以比較, 因為真正的對等應該就是在各自文化中的含義、作用、范圍、感情色彩、影響等等都就是相當的。翻譯者必須就是一個真正意義的文化人。人們會說:她必須掌握兩種語言; 確實如此, 但就是不了解語言當中的社會文化, 誰也無法真正掌握語言(王佐良,1989)。

(4)、 Semantic Views on Translation

This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):"Translating means translating meaning"、

Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5)、

Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22)、

In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author"s original thought-processes in target language than to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151)、

(5)、Functional Views on Translation

Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society、Translators should take into account the needs of the client, ?the reader as well as the purpose or use of the translation:

It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator"s, i、e、client"s needs (Baker,2001:236)、

(6)、Communicative Views on Translation

This approach views translation as a communicative process which takes place within a social context、

Communicative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the target language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22)、

Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient、 A translator who is translating communicatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text"s original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21)、

The above views help us to understand the complex nature of translation、 Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity、

2、 Translation Criteria Put Forward by Famous Translators or Translation Theorists

Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation、

(1)、 嚴復 (1853-1921):Triple Principle of Translation

信 (faithfulness): 忠實準確

達 (expressiveness}: 通順流暢

雅 (elegance): 文字古雅

Yan Fu put forward this "Three-character Guide” in his preface to the translation of T、H、 Huxley"s book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演論》譯例言 1898): 譯事三難信達雅。求其信己大難矣。顧信矣不達。雖譯猶不譯也。則達尚焉、、、、、、

易曰修辭立誠。子曰辭達而已。又曰言之無文,行之不遠。三者乃文章正軌。亦即為譯事楷模。故信達而外,求其爾雅。此不僅期以行遠已耳。實則精理微言。用漢以前字法句法,則為達易。用近世利俗文字,則求達難。往往抑義就詞,毫厘千里。審擇于斯二者之間,夫固有所不得已也。豈釣奇哉。、、、、、、

Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant、 It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation、 Hence expressiveness should be required too、……

The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness、 Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language、 He adds that if one"s language lacks grace, it won"t go far、 These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too、 Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance、 I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer"s ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today、 Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding、 Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different ……

Yan Fu’s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of "elegance" has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve "elegance"、 Yan Fu"s criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles、 Despite this, Yan’s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed、 Nowadays to many translators, "elegance" implies "the safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original”(黃龍, 1988:90) or "運用讀者所最樂于接受的文體, 使譯文得以廣泛流傳,擴大影響"(勞隴,《翻譯通訊》1983年第10期)、

(2)、 魯迅 信(faithfulness) 順(smoothness)

(3)、 林語堂 忠實{faithfulness) 通順(smoothness) 美(beautifulness)

翻譯的標準問題,大概包括三方面。我們可依三方面的次序討論。第一就是忠實標準,第二就是通順標準,第三就是美的標準。這翻譯的三層標準,與嚴氏的"譯事三難",大體上就是正相比符的。

(4)、 傅雷:神似 (resemblance in spirit)

以效果而論,(文學)翻譯應當像臨畫一樣,所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老頭》重譯本序,1951)

(5)、 錢鐘書:化境 (reaching the acme of perfection)

文學翻譯的最高境界就是"化",把作品從一國文字轉變成另一國文字,既能不因語文習慣的差異而露出生硬牽強的痕跡,又能完全保存原有的風昧,那就算得入于"化境"。十七世紀有人贊美這種造詣的翻譯,比為原作的"投胎轉世"(the transmigration of soul), 軀殼換了一個,而精神姿致依然故我。換句話說,譯本對原作應該忠實得以至于讀起來不像譯本,因為作品在原文里絕不會讀起來像經過翻譯似的。(《林紓的翻譯》,1964)

(6)、 劉重德:信(faithhlness)

達(expressiveness)

切(closeness)

信于內容 (to be faithful to the content of the original);

達如其分 (to be as expressive as the original);

切合風格 (to be as close to the original style as possible)、

(《渾金璞玉集》,1994: 9)

(7)、 許淵沖:三重標準 (three levels of criteria) (《翻譯的藝術》,1984: 26)

標

準

低標準

中標準

高標準

內容忠實(信)

明確

準確

精確

(三似)

意似

形似

神似

(三化)

淺化

等化

深化

形式通順(達)

易懂

通順

揚長(雅,或傳神)

(8)、 Alexander Fraser TytIer (泰特勒): Three Principles of Translation

Alexander F、Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical criteria in his Essay on the Principles of Translation (1790):

1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work (譯作應該完全傳達原作的思想);

2) The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the original (譯作的風格與筆調應當與原作保持一致);

3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition

(譯作應當與原作一樣流暢)、

Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their significance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second 、

(9)、 Eugene A、 Nida (奈達): Functional Equivalence (功能對等)

Eugene A、Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his Language and Culture: Context in Translating(2001:87):

1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it、 (最低限度而又切合實際的功能對等定義:譯文讀者對譯文的理解應當達到能夠想像出原文讀者就是怎樣理解與領會原文的程度)、

2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did、 (最高限度合乎理想的功能對等定義:譯文讀者應當能夠基本上按照原文讀者理解與領會原文的方式來理解與領會譯文)、

3、 Classification of translation

(1)、 Jakobson (1896-1982)

1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language、

2)?? Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language、

3)?? Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems、

e、g、

1) 原文:子曰:“學而時習之,不亦樂乎!有朋友自遠方來,不亦樂乎!人不知而不慍,不亦君子乎!”

譯文一: 孔子說:“學習了而時常溫習,不也高興不！有朋友從遠方來,不也快樂不!別人不了解我,我并不怨恨,不也就是君子不？” (徐志剛 譯)

譯文二: The Master said,"To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt,

Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsoured even though one’s merits are unrecognized by others, Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman? (Waley 譯)

[點評] 原文同譯文一之間的轉換屬于語內翻譯 (intralingual translation), 即用同一語盲的其她語言符號對原文迸行闡釋或者重述 (rewording)。原文同譯文二之間的轉換屬于語際翻譯 (interlingual translation),即兩個不同語言之間所進行的轉換。

2) 原文:A: What does your watch say?

B: It says “five past three”、

[點評] 在這一對話中,B實際上就是在迸行一種翻譯,這種翻譯叫做符際翻譯(intersemiotic translation),即語言同非語言符號之間的代碼轉換。當A詢問B幾點鐘的時候,B只能瞧鐘或者瞧手表,而鐘或者手表并不能說話,B只能根據鐘表的時針與分針來確定具體兒點鐘了。而B所言實際上就是言語傳達一個非言語信息 (non-linguistic message)。將非言語信息用言語傳達出來就是翻譯的一種方式,這不就是從一種語言到另一種語言的轉換過程,而就是從非語言交際系統到語言交際系統的過程。非語言交際系統與語言交際系統的共同特征就是兩者都屬于"符號系統"(即用于交際的系統)。雅可布遜 Jakobson)將這種由非語言交際系統到語言交際系統的轉換過程稱為符際翻譯就是恰當的。其實,我們每個人每一天、每一刻都在迸行著符際翻譯而不自知也。從這個意義上說,我們每個人都就是某種意義上的譯者 (Hervey et、al 1995:8-9)、

(2)、 Peter Newmark (紐馬克): Communicative and Semantic Translation (交際翻譯與語義翻譯)

Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of communicative and semantic translation in his Approaches to Translation (1982/1988:39):

1) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original、 (交際翻譯力圖對譯作讀者產生盡可能接近原作讀者所獲得的效果)、

2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original、 (語義翻譯力圖在譯作語言的語義結構與句法結構允許的情況下,譯出原作在上下文中的準確意義)、

4、 Nature and Scope of Translation

What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and

yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill、

Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word "translation", for the very word "translation" itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent ""fanyi" sounds even fuzzier、 Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself、 Sometimes, "fanyi" may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself、

If the word "translation" refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill、 For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable、 Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators、

Translation covers a very broad range、 In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc、 , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc、 , and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc、); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation(全文翻譯), abridged translation(摘譯)or adapted translation(編譯)、

5、 Principles or Criteria of Translation

The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing、 The former lays emphasis on the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works、 Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan Fu’s "three-character guide", which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of "信、達、雅"(faithfulness expressiveness and elegance )、

In the past decades Mr、 Yan"s principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after、 However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead、

Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance、 The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character "雅"、 According to them, "雅" means far more than the English word "elegance"、 Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor、 The second group, however, argues that the word "雅" is out of place in translation、 While adopting the first two characters of Mr、 Yan Fu"s principle, it discards the character "雅" and tries to find some other new criteria instead、 Noticeably, there are revisions such as "信、達、切 " (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness), "信、達、貼 " (faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness), and so on、 The third group of people, by casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own、 Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spiritual conformity (神似) and sublimated adaptation (化境)、 The former, proposed by Fu Lei emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian Zhongshu, focuses on the translator"s smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader、

Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy(忠實、準確) and that of smoothness (流暢)、 We may also take these two criteria as the principles of translation in general、 By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style、 By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries、

6、 Literal Translation and Free Translation

The process of translation consists of two phases: comprehension and expression、 Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough comprehension、 However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages、 In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation、 Literal translation and free translation are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations、

The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means "not to alter the original words and sentences"; strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original"、 It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation、 Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech、 There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions、 For example, crocodile"s tears, armed to the teeth, chain reaction, gentlemen"s agreement, and so on、 Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation、 For example, 紙老虎 (paper tiger), 一國兩制 (one country, two systems ), and so on、

Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figures of speech、 This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really impossible for the translator to do literal translation、 For example:

·Adam"s apple 　喉結

·at sixes and sevens 　亂七八糟

·It rains cats and dogs、 大雨滂沱

·Don"t cross the bridge till you get to it、 不必擔心過早。(不必自尋煩惱)

·Do you see any green in my eye? 您以為我就是幼稚可欺的不?

The above illustrations can not be translated literally,otherwise,the Chinese rendition would make nonsense at all,let alone the original meaning、

Literal translation and free translation, however, are relative concepts、 In other words, there is no absolute “literal”,nor entirely "free" version in the practice of translation, and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences、 Let"s scrutinize the following two practical cases、

Original English 1

I love tiger cat, … British movies on public television,fluffy blouses, the nuclear family, (Helen Snow,My China Years)

Chinese Version A:

我愛虎貓, …… (愛)電視上放映的英國影片,有絨毛的短衫,核心家庭,……

Chinese Version B:

我喜歡豹貓, …… 喜歡公共電視臺播放的英國電影,喜歡蓬松、柔軟的棉毛衫,喜歡一夫一妻制的家庭,……

Comment:

Apparently, these two Chinese versions are far from being perfect、 Other things aside, the rendering of the phrase nuclear family poses a serious problem of representation、 Version A renders "the nuclear family" as "核心家庭" by means of literal translation、 However, this version is too stiff, therefore it fails to convey the original meaning to the Chinese reader—for most Chinese, they have hardly any idea what "核心家庭" really means、 Version B adopts the approach of free translation and puts it into "一夫一妻制";evidently it goes too far and distorts the author"s original intention, and in doing so, the translator abuses the practice of free translation、 In fact, the nuclear family has nothing to do with either of the versions、 A close examination of its definition in an English-English dictionary sheds light on this phrase: nuclear family, a family group that consists only of father, mother and children、 Therefore, the proper rendering of the phrase should be words to this effect: a cozy small family, namely, the Chinese equivalent "小家庭"、

Original English 2 :

Mao Tse-tung was well bred, but inside he was made of steel, of hard resistance, of tough tissue—the kind of tissue the Boxers thought they had by magic, and bared their solar plexuses to foreign bullets、(ibid、 )

Chinese Version A:

毛澤東有很好的教養,內部就是鋼,有堅強的抗力,就是堅韌的材料制成的。這就是義與團設想的由于神力具有的,可以把腹部袒胸給外國人的子彈的那種材料。

Chinese Version B:

毛澤東教養有素,精神支柱鐵鑄鋼打,不怕高壓,就是由堅韌的組織構成的。這

種組織,就就是義與拳認為她們通過魔法得到的那種組織袒胸露體,刀槍不入。

Comment:

The word "tissue" can hardly be rendered into Chinese either in literal translation or free translation,nor could the metaphor "inside he was made of steel" be properly rendered without grasping the essence of the whole sentence、 However,since there is no corresponding expressions in Chinese, the translators tackle them according to their own understanding、 Inversion A,"tissue" is freely rendered as "材料" (material),while version B literally as"組織"(organic tissue)—both fail to convey the original meaning and attitude of the writer、 By adopting translation skills such as amplification, omission,conversion and restructuring,we may translate the original English sentence as follows:

Revised Version:

毛澤東外表溫文爾雅,但內心深處卻鋼鑄鐵打,既堅韌,又抗壓—在她的身上可以瞧到當年義與團自信所具有的那種神力,面對洋槍洋炮也敢袒胸露懷。

From the above analysis, we come to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free translation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other、 The key point for a translator to grasp is to comprehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese、 In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes、 In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication、 Whatever the circumstances, we may alternate or combine these two approaches when it is necessary、

7、 Omission

Omission is a technique opposite to amplification、 True, a translator has no right to subtract any meaning from the original work、 But it does not follow that he should refrain from omitting any words at all in translation、 In fact, one of the marked differences in syntax between English and Chinese is the disparity in wording、 What is regarded as a natural or indispensable element in one language may be regarded as superfluous or even "a stumbling block" in the other、 Take the following English sentence and its Chinese version for example:

Original English: The time-keeping devices of electronic watches are much more accurate than those of mechanical ones、

Chinese Version: 電子表比機械表準確得多。

A comparison between the Chinese version with the English original shows that many of the "redundant" English words have been omitted in the Chinese translation, otherwise, the Chinese sentence would sound wordy and unnatural、 Therefore, a manipulation of the technique "omission" is always called for in English-Chinese translation、 On the other hand, some Chinese sentences, when translated into English, also need to be rid of redundant wording so as to conform to idiomatic English expressions、

8、 Conversion

Conversion, one of the commonly adopted translation techniques, means the change of parts of speech in translation、 Owing to the syntactical differences between English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for a translator to keep to the original part of speech in the process of translation、 For example:

Original English: This watch never varies more than a second in a month、

Chinese Version: 這塊表一個月的誤差從不超過一秒鐘。

The English verb "varied" can hardly be rendered into Chinese by the same part of speech without spoiling the original meaning、 As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain part of speech in one language sometimes has to be converted into a different part of speech, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence、

9、 Restructuring

Restructuring, as one of the translation techniques, means the necessary or inevitable change of word order in a sentence according to the usage of the language to be translated into、 It is also called rearrangement or inversion、

10、 Hypotactic vs、 Paratactic (形合與意合)

Hypotaxis (形合法) is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don"t come、 English sentence building is featured by hypotaxis、

Parataxis(意合法)is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives

Showing the relation between them, for example, The rain fell; the river flooded; the house washed away、 Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis、

11、 Foreignizing Translation and Domesticating Translation

(1)、 Foreignizing Translation

Foreignizing translation lays great emphasis on retaining the cultural flavors of the source language and enables the reader to have an alien reading experience, thus developing the reader"s awareness of cultural differences、 To promote cultural exchange and mutual understanding between peoples of different languages and cultures, foreignizing translation is a far better choice than domesticating translation、 In this way we can better understand the source-language culture and enrich Chinese modes of expression、 The weakness of foreignization is that the culture-specific expressions thus translated may not be familiar to our readers or smooth enough for us to read with ease、 In this case, a semantic translation or an explanatory note may be added、 However, what is unfamiliar at present may gradually become familiar as more and more intercultural communications take place, or as people read more and more such translated expressions、 Here we are reminded of a much quoted saying by

Lu Xun:

翻譯必須有異國情調,就就是所謂洋氣。其實世界上也不會有完全歸化的譯文,倘有,就就是貌合神離,從嚴辨別起來,它算不得翻譯。凡就是翻譯,必須兼顧著兩面,一當然力求其易解,一則保存著原作的豐姿,但這保存,卻又常常與易懂相矛盾:瞧不慣了。不過它原就是洋鬼子,當然誰也瞧不慣,為比較的順眼起見,只能改換它的衣裳,卻不該削低它的鼻子,剜掉它的眼睛。(《魯迅全集》第6卷,348頁)

and also a quotation from Mao Zedong:

要從外國語言中吸收我們所需要的成分。我們不就是硬搬或濫用外國語言,就是要吸收外國語言中的好東西,于我們適用的東西。因為中國原有語匯不夠用,現在我們的語匯中就有很多就是從外國吸收來的。例如今天開的干部大會,這“干部”兩個字,就就是從外國學來的。我們還要多多吸收外國的新鮮東西,不但要吸收她們的進步道理,而且要吸收她們的新鮮用語。(《反對黨八股》)

It should be noted that skilful foreignizing translation, which may involve the techniques of necessary addition or omission, does not mean word-for-word or mechanical translation which disregards the original implication, the constraints of Chinese usage (linguistic and cultural), and the acceptability of our readers、

Examples:

1)、 arm to the teeth

武裝到牙齒 (cf、 全副武裝)

2)、 crocodile tears

鱷魚的眼淚 (cf、 貓哭老鼠假慈悲)

3)、 Beauty lies in the lover"s eyes、

情人眼里出美人 (cf、 情人眼里出西施)

4)、 In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is King、

盲人國里,獨眼人稱王 (cf、 蜀中無大將,廖化作先鋒)

5)、 as gay (cheerful) as a lark

像云雀那樣快活(cf、興高采烈)

e、g、 Ha, ha! We should be as gay as larks, Mr、 Richard — why not? (C、 Dickens: The Old Curiosity Shop)

6).Sour grapes

酸葡萄(cf、把得不到的東西說成就是不好的)

e、g、 But because we cannot satisfy the desires of our hearts - why should we cry "sour grapes" at them? (H、 Wells: Christina Alberta"s Father)

7)、 Pandora"s box

潘多拉的盒子 (cf、 災難與罪惡的來源)

8)、 Judas kiss

猶大之吻 (cf、虛偽的好意)

9)、 teach a pig to play on a flute

教豬吹笛 (cf、 對牛彈琴)

10)、 flog a dead horse 鞭打死馬 (cf、做無用功;白費口舌)

11)、 a dark horse 黑馬 (cf、 出人意料的獲勝者)

12)、 as easy as ABC 像ABC 字母一樣簡單 (cf、 非常容易)

13)、 ivory tower 象牙塔 (cf、 人們避免現實生活中煩惱的小天地)

14)、 Beauty is but skin-deep、

(諺語) 美貌只就是一層皮(cf、 不可以貌取人)

15)、 Can the leopard?change his spots?

(諺語)美洲豹豈能改變身上的花紋 (cf、 本性難移)

16)、 Trojan horse

(諺語) 特洛伊木馬 (cf、 詭計;隱患;從內部進行顛覆破壞的人)

17)、 Never offer to teach fish to swim、

(諺語) 不要教魚游泳 (cf、 不要班門弄斧)

18)、 look for a needle in a haystack

在草堆里找針 (cf、 海底撈針)

19)、 a stick-and-carrot policy

大棒加胡蘿卜政策(cf、軟硬兼施;恩威并用)

20)、 domino effect

多米諾骨牌效應 (cf、連鎖反應)

21)、 John is her office Romeo、

約翰就是她辦公室里的羅迷歐(cf、 辦公室里的男情人)

22)、 sandwich man

三明治式廣告宣傳員 (cf、 身前身后掛著標語牌的廣告宣傳員)

In foreignizing translation, a paraphrase or an explanation, if necessary, may be added to the unfamiliar expression or a footnote may be placed at the end of the translation, so as to make the English culture-loaded expression comprehensible to our readers:

e、g、 It was another one of those Catch-22 situations, you"re damned if you do and you"re damned if you don"t、

這真就是又一個如同軍規第二十二條的尷尬局面:做也倒霉,不做也倒霉,令人左右為難。

注::Catch-22 situation 源自美國小說家 Joseph Heller 于1961 年出版的小說《 第二十二條軍規》(Catch-22)。該條軍規規定:飛行員如果覺得自己神經不正常,可以獲準不執行飛行任務,但必須提出申請并得到批準。但同時該軍規又規定:如果飛行員因此提出申請,則充分證明該飛行員能意識到面臨著無法克服的困難,頭腦清醒,神經正常,因此不得豁免飛行任務。這就是一條自相矛盾、無法執行的規定。

(2)、 Domesticating Translation

Domesticating translation minimizes the foreignness of the source-language text by changing heterogeneous elements into what is familiar to the target-language reader、 This method of "substitution" means replacing the English culture-loaded expression by its Chinese equivalent, which may be similar in form and same in meaning (形似意同) or different in form but same in meaning (形異意同), to minimize the strangeness of the English expression by adopting a fluent, natural-sounding Chinese style for our readers" preferences、 Domestication is usually employed when the translator believes that the original cultural flavor is widely different from Chinese culture and therefore too difficult for our readers to understand、

Both at present and in history, the domesticating strategy seems to have been dominant in China, for reviewers and publishers tend to lay great emphasis on readability of the translated text, which coincides with the taste of the general reader、 The weakness of domestication is that the original cultural flavors are not communicated to our readers and the translation becomes a "regrettable art"、

It should be emphasized that many English and Chinese expressions may seem similar in form, but they are actually different in meaning or in shades of implication、 Translators should guard against these "false friends" and the resulting mistakes (see the "CAUTION" below)、

Examples:

1)、 Give him an inch and he will take a mile、

2)、 like a cat on hot bricks

3)、 spring (shoot) up like mushrooms

4)、 The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak、

5)、 have one foot in the grave

6)、 carry coals to Newcastle

7)、 lion in the way (來自《圣經》) 攔路虎

8)、 Seeing is believing、

9)、 What"s done is done、 (Shakespeare)

10)、 When Greek meets Greek then comes the tug of war、 (諺語) 兩雄相遇,其斗必烈。

12、 Semantic Translation

Semantic translation means reproducing the precise contextual meaning of the English culture-loaded expression within the syntactic and semantic constraints of the Chinese language、 Wemay employ the method of concretization" (具體法) or "abstraction" (抽象法) to paraphrase the expression、 Semantic translation is employed often after the failure of "foreignizing translation" or "domesticating translation"、 In many cases we find it difficult to translate them unless we refer to contexts or consult dictionaries、

Examples:

1)、 apple of discord

(來自希臘神話) 不與的種子;爭吵的根源

2)、 escape by (with) the skin of one"s teeth

(來自《圣經》) 死里逃生;幸免于難

3)、 hole-and-corner

(來自《圣經》) 偷偷摸摸;鬼鬼祟祟

4)、 as poor as Job

(來自《圣經》) 一貧如洗(窮得象約伯一樣)

5)、 By George!

天啊！好家伙！糟糕！(used as an exclamation of surprise or approval、)

e、g、 It couldn"t be, by George, that she was deceiving him、 (Th、 Dreiser: Sister Carrie)

6)、 Mickey Mouse (= small and unimportant; not to be taken seriously, LDCE 1998: 952)

e、g、 ·A "Mickey Mouse course" meansa snap course、 (American Speech)

· He calls himself the managing director but his company is just a Mickey Mouse operation that he runs from his own home、 (LDCE 1998: 952)

7)、 in for a penny, in for a pound

(= if something has been started it should be finished, whatever the cost may be, LDCE 1998: 1108)

e、g、 Now gentlemen, I am not a man who does things by halves, being in for a penny, I am ready, as the saying is, in for a pound、 (The Curiosity Shop)

8)、 bite off more than one can chew

(= attempt more than one can deal with or succeed in finishing, LDCE 1998: 130)

e、g、 I told him he would be biting off more than he could chew if he tried to rebuild the house himself, (ibid)

9)、 be in good company

(= be able to take comfort from the fact that many other [skilled or clever] people are the same as yourself, esp、 in not being able to do something, Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, 1979)

e、g、 —"Why are we going to France? I can"t speak a word of French、"

—"Don"t worry, you"re in good company— neither can I!" (LDCE 1998: 294)

10)、 a square peg in a round hole

(= someone who is not suited to the job they hold, the group they belong to, LDCE 1998: 1489)

e、g、 Horace hated his work in the office as he had always worked out of doors; he was a square peg in a round hole、

Eugene Nida

Dynamic Equivalence and Formal Equivalence

Eugene A、 Nida (1914-- ) is a distinguished American translation theorist as well as a linguist、 His translation theory has exerted a great influence on translation studies in Western countries、 His work on translation set off the study of modern translation as an academic field, and he is regarded as “the patriarch of translation study and a founder of the discipline” (Snell-Hornby 1988:1; Baker 1998:277)

Nida’s theory of dynamic equivalence is his major contribution to translation studies、 The concept is first mentioned in his article “Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating”(1959) (《從圣經翻譯瞧翻譯原則》) as he attempts to define translating、 In his influential work Toward a Science of Translating (1964) (《翻譯原則科學探索》), he postulates dynamic equivalent translation as follows:

In such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message with the source-language message, but with the dynamic relationship, that the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as that existed between the original receptors and the message (1964:159) However, he does not give a clear definition of dynamic equivalence untill 1969、 In his 1969 textbook The Thoery and Practice of Translation(《翻譯理論與實踐》), dynamic equivalence is defined “ in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptores in the source language”(1969:24)

The expression “dynamic equivalence” is superseded by “functional equivalencev” in his work From One Language to Another (1986, with De Waard)(《從一種語言到另一種語言》)、 However, there is essentially not much difference between the two concepts、 The substitution of “functional equivalence” is just to stress the concept of function and to avoid misunderstandings of the term “dynamic”, which is mistaken by some persons for something in the sense of impact ( Nida 1993:124)、 In Language, Culture and Translating(1993)(《語言與文化:翻譯中的語境》, “functional equivalence” is further divided into categories on two levels: the minimal level and the maximal level、 The minimal level of “functional equivalence” is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”、 The maximal level is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and aprreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did” (Nida 1993:118; 1995:224)、 The two definitions of equivalence reveal that the minimal level is realistic, whereas the maximal level is ieal、 For Nida, good translations always lie somewhere between the two levels (Nida 19954:224)、 It can be noted that “functional equivalence” is a flexible concept with different degrees of adequacy、

Dynamic Equivalence

A term introduced by Nida(1964) in the context of Bible translation to describe one of two basic orientations found in the process of translation (see also Formal Equivalence)、 Dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors”(Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200, emphasis removed)、 In other words, a dynamically equivalent translation is one which has been produced in accordance with the threefold process of Analysis, Transfer and Restructuring (Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200); formulating such a translation will entail such procedures as substituting TL items which are more culturally appropriate for obscure ST items, making lingguistically implicit ST information explicit, and building in a certain amount of REDUNDANCY(1964:131) to aid comprehension、 In a translation of this kind one is therefor not so concerned with “matching the receptor-language message with the source-laguage”; the aim is more to “relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture” (Nida 1964:159)、 Possibly the best known example of a dynamically equivalent solution to a translation problem is seen in the decision to translate the Biblical phrase “Lamb of God” into and Eskimo language as “Seal of God”: the fact that lambs are unkown in polar regions has here led to the substitution of a culturally meaningful item which shares at least some of the important features of the SL expression (see Snell-Hornby 1988/1955:15)、 Nida and Taber argue that a “high degree” of equivalence of response is needed for the translation to achieve its purpose, although they point out that this response can never be identical with that elicited by the original(1969/1982:24)、 However, they also issue a warning about the limits within which the processes associated with producing dynamic equivalence remain valid: fore example, a comparison with the broadly simialr category of Linguistic Translaton reveals that only elements which are linguistically implict in TT-rather than any additional contextual information which might be necessary to a new audience—may legitimately be made explicit in TT、 The notion of dynamic equivalence is of course especially relevant to Bible translation, given the particular need of Biblical translations not only to inform readers but also to present a relevant message to them and hopefully elicit a response(1969/1982:24)、 However, it can clearly also be applied to other genres, and indeed in many areas ( such as literary translation) it has arguably come to hold sway over other approaches (Nida 1964:160)、 See also Fuctional Equivalence、 Further reading: Gut 1991; Nida 1964,1995: Nida & Taber 1969/1982、

奈達(Nida)(1964)在《圣經》翻譯中所采用的術語,用來描述翻譯過程的兩個基本趨向之一(另見Formal Equivalence[形式對等])。動態對等指翻譯性質而言,在這種翻譯過程中,“原文信息轉移到接受語言,譯文接受者的反應與原文接受者的反應基本相同” (Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200,原文的著重號已取消)。 換言之,在動態對等的翻譯中,譯文的產生要經過三個步驟:分析[Analysis]、轉移[Transfer]與重組[Restructuring] (Nida & Taber 1969/1982:200); 生成這么一篇譯文需要采取如下程序:用在文化上更恰當的目標語成分替換隱晦難懂的源文本成分,使語言上內隱的源文本信息明晰化;以及使用一定的冗余[Redundant] 信息來幫助理解(1964:131)。因此,進行這類翻譯,譯者不必十分在意“接受語信息與源語信息的匹配“;譯者的目的反而主要就是“考慮接受者在自身文化情境中的行為模式”(Nida,1964:159)。用動態對等方法解決翻譯問題的一個最為人知的例子,就是把《圣經》用語“上帝的羔羊”譯成某一愛斯基摩語中的“上帝的海豹”:在地球極地羔羊不為人知,因而在此將它替換成一個具有譯語文化意義的事物,替換物至少擁有部分源語表達的重要特征(見Snell-Hornby 1988/1955:15)。奈達與泰伯(Taber)認為,要達到翻譯目的,就需要獲得在讀者反應上的“高度”對等,但她們也指出,這種反應與原文引出的反應絕對不可能完全等同(1969/1982:24)。她們還指出,產生動態對等的相關過程使受到限制的,例如,把它與大致相同類別的語言翻譯[Linguistic Translation]加以比較,發現源文本中只有語言上的內隱成分可以在目標文本中明說出來,而目標讀者可能需要的任何附加語境信息則不可在目標文本中增加。毫無疑問,動態對等的概念對于《圣經》翻譯特別有用,因為《圣經》翻譯所需要的不僅就是為讀者提供信息,而且就是要提供有用的信息,并希望引發某種反應(1969/1982:24)。但很顯然,這一概念同時也能應用于其她文體。實際上,可以認為它已在很多領域(例如文學領域)表現得比其她途徑更為優勝。

Formal Equivalence

Formal Equivalence ( or Formal Correspondence) Defined by Nida as one of “two different types of equivalence” (see also Dynamic Equivalence), which “focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content”(1964:159)、 Formal equivalence is thus the “quality of a translaiton in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”( Nida & Taber 1969/1982:201)、 Nida proposed his categorization in the context of Bible translation, and in many respects it offers a more useful distiction than the more traditional notions of free and literal translation ( Hatim & Mason 1990:7)、 The aim of a translator who is striving for formal equivalence is to allow ST to speak “in its own terms” rather than attempting to adjust it to the circumstances of the target culture; in practice this means, for example, using Formal rather than Functional Equivalents wherever possible, not joinning or spliting sentences, and preserving formal indicators such as punctuation marks and paragraphs breaks (Nida 1964:165)、 The frequent result of such strategies is of course that, because of differences in structure between SL and TL, a translation of this type “distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor lanugage, and hence distorts the message” ( Nida & Taber 1969/1982: 201)、 For this reason it is frequently nesessary to include explanatory notes to help the target reader ( Nida 1964:166)、 Like its converse, dynamic equivalence, formal equivalence represents a general orientation rather than and absolute technique, so that between the two opposite extremes there are any number of intervening grades, all of which reprent acceptable methods of translation (1964:160)、 However, a general tendency towards formal rather than dynamic euqivalence is characterized by, for example, a concern for accuracy (1964:1598) and a preference for retaining the original wording wherever possible、 In spite of its apparent limitations, however, formal equivalence is sometimes the most appropriate strategy to follow: besides frequently being chosen for translating Biblical and other sacred texts, it is also useful for Back-translation and for when the translator or interpreter may for some reason being unwilling to accept responsibility for changing the wording of TT ( see Hatim & Mason 1990: 7)、 It should be noted that when Nida & Taber (1969/1982) discuss this concept they use the term formal correspondence to refer to it、 Further reading: Nida 1964; Nida & Taber 1969/1982; Tymoczko 1985、

Formal Equivalence 形式對等(又名 Formal Correspondence[形式對應])

奈達(Nida)將形式對等定義為“兩種不同的對等類型”之一(另見Dynamic Equivalence[動態對等])。這種對等“強調信息本身,既強調信息的形式也強調信息的內容”(1964:159)。 這樣,形式對等指“源文本的形式特征在接受語中被機械復制的翻譯特性”(Nida & Taber,1962/1982: 201),奈達就是在《圣經》翻譯的背景下提出這個分類的,它在許多方面比傳統的自由譯[Free Translation]、直譯/字面翻譯[Literal Translation] 概念更有用(Hatim & Mason,1990:7)。力求形式對等的譯者允許源文本“用自己的話語”說話,而不想對它進行調整以適應目標文化;比如,在實踐中,這意味著盡可能地采用形式對等語[Formal Equivalent]而不就是功能對等語[Functional Equivalent], 既不合并也不拆分句子,保留原文的標點符號、段落劃分之類的形式標志(Nida,1964:165)。當然,由于源語與目標語的結構差異,采用這類策略得到的譯文往往“扭轉了接受語的語法與文體模式進行曲解了(原文)信息”(Nida & Taber, 1969/1982: 201)。為此,必須經常增加解釋性的注釋以幫助目標語讀者(理解)(Nida,1964:166)。 同與其相對應的動態對等一樣,形式對等反映的就是一個總體傾向而不就是一種絕對的技巧,因此,在這對應的兩極之間村子無數的中間等級,而所有這些中間等級都代表這可以接受的翻譯方法(1964:160)。然而,追求對等而非動態對等的總體趨勢具有如下特征,如強調譯文準確(1964:159),并傾向于盡可能地保留原來的措辭。盡管形式對等存在一些明顯的局限,然而,有時候它仍就是應該遵守的最合適的策略;除了常常用來翻譯《圣經》與其她宗教經文外,它同時也有利于回譯[Back-translation], 而且在口筆譯者可能出于某種原因不愿意承擔改變目標文本措詞的責任時,也就是大有裨益的(見Hatin & Mason,1990:7)。應該指出,奈達與泰伯(1969/1982)在討論這一概念時,她們使用“形式對應”這一術語來指稱它。另見Gloss Translation[釋詞翻譯]。詳閱:Nida(1964), Nida & Taber (1969/1982); Tymoczko(1985)、

Functional Equivalence

A term used to refer to the tpye of Equivalence reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced、 According to Gutt, the function that a texxt is intended to fulfil is now probably the “most widely accepted frame of reference for translation equivalence”(1991:10)、 However, while the term is used by a number of writers, it is perhaps defined most systematically by House (1977)、 House’s aim is to develop a methodology for assessing translation quality, and so her concept of funcitonal equivalence is basically evaluative、 She presents (1977:42) a detailed “multi-dimensional” analysis text function in which she distinguishes the three dimensions of linguistic usage relation to the language uers (geographical origin, social class and time), and five reflecting language use (medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province, or general area of discourse)、 Using this framwork it is possible to build up a “text profile” for both ST and TT, and the House argues that a translated text “should not only match its source text in function, but employ equivalent situational-dimensional means to achieve that function”( 1977:49)、 This means that there should be a high level of matching between ST and TT in the dimensions which are particularly relevant to the text in question if TT is to be considered functionally equivalent to ST(1977:49)、 Within House’s wider model, functional equivalence is only attainable in cases of Covert Translation(1977:205)、 However, according to Gutt, problems remain in the case of texts which possess more than one function(1991:10); indeed, it would be extremely difficult to construct a model which could accommodate such text、 It should be noted that the term functional equivalence is also used by de Waard & Nida(1986) to replace what Nida elsewhere refers to as Dynamic Equivalence; according to de Waard & Nida, the new term is less open to misinterpretation, and its use serves to “highlight the communicative functions of translating”(1986: 1986:ⅷ)、 Further reading: Gutt 1991; House 1977; de Waard & Nida 1986、

Functional Equivalence 功能對等

用來指在目標語文本中反映出的對等類型的術語,該目標文本旨在使原文功能適應它得以生成以及為其而生成的特定語境。按照格特(Gut)的觀點,現在,文本的功能或許就是“翻譯對等的最為普遍接受的參考框架”(1991:10)。然而,盡管這一術語為許多學者所采用,或許給它提供最系統的定義的使豪斯(House)(1977)。豪斯的目的就是為評估翻譯質量提供方法,因此,她的功能對等概念基本上評價性的。她(1944:42)提出了一種詳細的。“多維度”文本功能分析,區分三種涉及語言使用者的語言用法維度(“地理來源”、“社會等級”與“時間”),還區分了五個反映語言使用的維度(“中介”、“參與”、“社會角色關系”、“社會態度”與“領域“,或一般話語范圍)。運用這一框架,就有可能為源文本與目標文本建立一個“文本數據圖”。豪斯指出,譯本“不僅在功能上要切合源文本,而且應該采用對等的情景維度以取得這一功能”(1977:49)。這意味著,如果要想目標文本在功能上與源文本達到對等,那么,在相關文本關系特別密切的多個維度上,源文本與目標文本應當彼此高度對應(1977:49)。在豪斯所提范圍更廣的模式內,功能對等只有在隱型翻譯[Covert Translation]的情況下才能實現(1977:204),但就是,“因為必須要考慮到社會文化規范的差異”(1977:205),因此,即使在這里功能對等仍難以實現。然而,按照格特的觀點,在文本具有多個功能的情況下,問題仍然存在(1991:10);實際上,建立一個能夠適應這類文本的模式就是及其困難的。應該指出,功能對等這一術語也被得·瓦得(de Waard)與奈達(Nida)(1986)用來取代奈達在別處成為動態對等[Dynamic Equivalence]的概念;按照得·瓦得與奈達的觀點,這一術語不那么容易被人誤解,而且使用它可以“強調翻譯的交際功能”(1986:ⅷ)。

Skopos theory目的論

20世紀70年代,功能派翻譯理論興起于德國。其發展經過了以下幾個階段。

第一階段: 凱瑟琳娜·萊斯首次把功能范疇引入翻譯批評,將語言功能,語篇類型與翻譯策略相聯系,發展了以源文與譯文功能關系為基礎的翻譯批評模式,從而提出了功能派理論思想的雛形。萊斯認為理想的翻譯應該就是綜合性交際翻譯,即在概念性內容,語言形式與交際功能方面都與原文對等,但在實踐中應該優先考慮的就是譯本的功能特征。

第二階段: 漢斯·弗米爾(Vermeer)提出了目的論,將翻譯研究從原文中心論的束縛中擺脫出來。該理論認為翻譯就是以原文為基礎的有目的與有結果的行為,這一行為必須經過協商來完成;翻譯必須遵循一系列法則,其中目的法則居于首位。也就就是說,譯文取決于翻譯的目的。此外,翻譯還須遵循“語內連貫法則”與“語際連貫法則”。前者指譯文必須內部連貫,在譯文接受者瞧來就是可理解的,后者指譯文與原文之間也應該有連貫性。這三條原則提出后,評判翻譯的標準不再就是“對等”,而就是譯本實現預期目標的充分性。弗米爾還提出了翻譯委任的概念,即應該由譯者來決定就是否,何時,怎樣完成翻譯任務。也就就是說,譯者應該根據不同的翻譯目的采用相應的翻譯策略,而且有權根據翻譯目的決定原文的哪些內容可以保留,哪些需要調整或修改。

費米爾認為,翻譯中的最高法則應該就是“目的法則”。也就就是說,翻譯的目的不同,翻譯時所采取的策略、方法也不同。換言之,翻譯的目的決定了翻譯的策略與方法。對于中西翻譯史上的歸化、異化之爭,乃至近二三十年譯界廣泛討論的形式對等與動態對等,“目的論”都做出了很好的解釋。翻譯中到底就是采取歸化還就是異化,都取決于翻譯的目的。由于功能翻譯理論就就是以“目的原則”為最高準則,而任何翻譯活動都就是有目的的行為,片名翻譯的最終目標與主要功能就是幫助人們了解影片的主要內容,并激發觀眾的觀瞧欲望。因此我們需要對功能翻譯理論尤其就是“目的論”流派做簡單了解。

第三階段: 賈斯塔·霍茨—曼塔里借鑒交際與行為理論,提出翻譯行為理論,進一步發展了功能派翻譯理論該理論將翻譯視作受目的驅使的,以翻譯結果為導向的人與人之間的相互作用。該理論與目的論有頗多共同之處,弗米爾后來也將二者融合。

第四階段: 克里斯汀娜·諾德全面總結與完善功能派理論。克里斯汀娜·諾德首次用英語系統闡述了翻譯中的文本分析所需考慮的內外因素,以及如何在原文功能的基礎上制定切合翻譯目的的翻譯策略。克里斯汀娜·諾德對功能派各學說進行了梳理,并且提出譯者應該遵循“功能加忠誠”的指導原則,從而完善了該理論。

《翻譯》課程理論匯編(基本概念)

1、1 翻譯的概念

一般地,我們將翻譯定義為:將一種語言(口語或筆語形式)(譯出語)轉換或創造為另一種語言(譯入語)。翻譯就是一種非常復雜的

人類高級語言活動,這種活動的整個過程就是很難以圖示、語言等其她方式闡釋清楚的。不同領域、不同派別的學者對翻譯有著不同的定義。

1、1、1 語言學家對翻譯的定義

語言學家將翻譯視為一種語言活動,同時認為,翻譯理論屬于語言學的一個部分,即研究譯出語與譯入語的轉換關系。解釋如下:

(1)Catford(1965:20)認為,翻譯就是譯出語與譯入語間的文本等效轉換。

(2)Nida 與Taber(1969:12)認為,翻譯就是譯出語與譯入語間意義與形式上的最緊密聯系轉換。

(3)Newmark(1982/1988:5)認為,翻譯理論源自于比較語言學,屬于語義學的一部分,而所有語義學的研究課題都與翻譯理論息

息相關。

1、1、2 文化角度對翻譯的定義

從文化角度來瞧,翻譯不僅僅就是語言符號的轉換,同時就是文化的交流,尤其就是“文化間交流”。通常我們把這一術語又改稱為“文化

間合作”或“跨文化交際”等。

Shuttleworth 與Cowie(1997:35)認為,與其說翻譯就是兩種語言之間的符號轉換,不如說就是兩種語言所代表的兩種文化間的轉換。

譯者在處理涉及語言文化方面的譯務工作時,認為任何一種語言中都飽含著其文化中的相關元素(比如:語言中的問候語、固定搭配

等),任何文本都存在于特定的文化環境中,同時,由于各語言所代表的多元文化差異很大,語言間的轉化與創造性生成模式千變萬化。

Nida 認為,對于一個成功的翻譯工作者而言,掌握兩種文化比掌握兩種語言更為重要,因為語言中的詞匯只有在特定的語言文化環境

中才能具有正確的、合乎文化背景的義項。

王佐良先生指出(1989),翻譯不僅涉及語言問題,也涉及文化問題。譯者不僅要了解外國的文化,還要深入了解自己民族的文化。

不僅如此,還要不斷的將兩種文化加以比較,因為真正的對等應該就是在各自文化中的含義、作用、范圍、感情色彩、影響等等都就是相當的。

翻譯者必須就是一個真正意義的文化人。人們會說:她必須掌握兩種語言;確實如此,但就是不了解語言當中的文化,誰也無法真正掌握語言。

1、1、3 文學角度對翻譯的定義

持文學觀點的翻譯工作者認為,翻譯就是對語言的藝術性創造,或就是一種善于創造的藝術。一些西方學者也認為,翻譯就是對“原文本的

藝術性改寫”。

文學翻譯的任務時要把原作中包含的一定社會生活的映像完好無損地從一種語言移注到另一種語言中,在翻譯過程中追求語言的藝術

美,再現原作的藝術性。用矛盾的話說,就是“使讀者在讀譯文的時候能夠像讀原著一樣得到啟發、感動與美的感受。”

語言就是塑造文學形象的工具,因而文學的形象性特征必然要在語言上表現出來。文學語言的特征,諸如形象、生動、鮮明、含蓄、凝

練、準確、風趣、幽默、辛辣、滑稽、悅耳、民族特點、地方色彩,還有行業習語、民間俚語、諺語等等,都就是作家根據塑造形象的需要,

從現實生活中提煉創造出來的。文學作品的藝術形式與思想內容就是辯證統一的,翻譯要保存原作風格特點,因此要求譯文生動形象、形神

畢肖、雅俗等同、簡介精美、詞情并茂(《譯學詞典》2004:291)

1、1、4 語義角度對翻譯的定義

語義角度下的翻譯著眼于兩種語言間的意義對等,正如Nida(1986)指出的那樣:翻譯就就是語義的翻譯。

Newmark(1988:5)認為,翻譯就是在確保作者文本語義正確的前提下,對語言的轉換與改寫。

Newmark(1982:22)認為,語義翻譯,即譯者在譯入語語義的限制下,精確的將譯出語轉化為譯入語。

Shuttleworth 與Cowie(1997:151)認為,在語義翻譯中,最為重要的就是,譯者就是否將作者的語義精確地傳達到譯出語中,而不就是譯

者就是否用她認為最合適的方式將作者的語義傳達到譯入語中。

1、1、5 功能角度對翻譯的定義

功能主義者認為,翻譯就是帶有特定目的的人類活動中的一種特殊形式,這種目的通常就是社會環境中的語言服務項目,譯者應滿足客戶、

讀者的需求,同時應滿足譯文的功用與使用目的等。

Baker(2001:236)認為,翻譯過程中不應受原文本、原文本對譯出文本的影響或作者通過文本設置的特殊功能等的影響。決定翻譯

過程的應該就是讀者、用戶等對譯出文本功用與目的的需求。

1、1、6 交際角度對翻譯的定義

交際主義者認為,翻譯就是在特定的社會情境中的交際過程。

Newmark(1982:22)認為,交際性翻譯,即譯者嘗試使譯出語讀者與譯入語讀者對同一篇文本產生同樣的閱讀效果。

Shuttleworth 與Cowie(1997:21)認為,交際性翻譯指向譯入語讀者的需求,采用交際性翻譯方式進行翻譯的譯者并不把原文本瞧做

就是簡單的語言單位,而就是一種文本信息,同時,譯者盡可能的保留原文本中的功能同時將其精確地反映給譯入語讀者們。

上面列舉了翻譯中的六種主要觀點,希望能夠幫助翻譯初學者深入理解翻譯的復雜本質。由于翻譯受到多種因素影響,因此,我們認

為翻譯就是一種復雜的人類活動。

1、2 翻譯的評價標準

翻譯的評價標準具有兩個方面的重要作用,其一作為翻譯過程的指導原則,其二就是作為衡量翻譯作品的標準。一般來說,原文本有兩個重要指標:一就是內容,二就是形式。下面我們將討論的翻譯評價標準將圍繞著作品的形式與內容展開:

1、2、1 著名翻譯家、翻譯理論家提出的翻譯評價標準

國內外的著名翻譯家與翻譯理論家就翻譯評價標準提出了一系列富有見地的瞧法:

【中國翻譯家】

(1)嚴復:嚴復(1853—1921)在翻譯赫胥黎《天演論》(今譯:《進化論》)中于前言處提出了翻譯三原則,即:

1、信(faithfulness):忠實準確

2、達(expressiveness):通順流暢

3、雅(elegance):文字古雅

嚴復同時指出:

譯事三難信達雅。求其信已大難矣。顧信矣不達。雖譯猶不譯也。則達尚焉。……

易曰修辭立誠。子曰辭達而已。又曰言之無文。行之不遠。三者乃文章正軌。亦即為譯事楷模。故信達于外。求其爾雅。此不僅期以行遠已耳。實則精理微言。用漢以前字法句法。則為達易。用近世利俗文字,則求達難。往往抑義就詞。毫厘千里。審擇于斯二者之間。

夫固有所不得已也。豈釣奇哉。……

黃龍(1988:90)與勞隴(《翻譯通訊》, 1983 年第10 期,運用讀者最樂于接受的問題,使譯文得以廣泛流傳,擴大影響)指出:嚴復的“翻譯三原則”中,前兩個標準,即對于原文的內容的“信”與“達”就是能夠作為普遍標準的,但就是第三個標準“雅”引來了不少批

評之聲。因為嚴復認為,只有回到漢代以前尋求詞匯與句法,才能夠稱得上“雅”。同時,嚴復的“翻譯三原則”飽受爭議同樣就是因為,這三個標準自相矛盾,而嚴復卻將這些標準放在一起。但,嚴復的“翻譯三原則”仍然在中國流行,只不過對于這三個標準的解釋已經與

先前不同了。當今的許多翻譯工作者認為,嚴復的“雅”實際暗含著“保留原文的原汁原味”的意思。

(2)魯迅:魯迅提出了翻譯的兩個標準,即:信(faithfulness)與順(smoothness)

魯迅(《魯迅全集》,第6 卷,348 頁)指出:翻譯必須有異國情調,就就是所謂洋氣,其實世界上也不會有完全歸化的譯文,倘有,就就是貌合神離,從嚴辨別起來,它算不得翻譯。凡就是翻譯,必須兼顧著兩面,一當然力求于其易解,一則保存著原作的豐姿,但這保存,卻

又常常與易懂相矛盾:瞧不慣了。不過它原就是洋鬼子,當然誰也瞧不慣,為比較的順眼起見,只能改換她的衣裳,卻不應該削低她的鼻子,剜掉她的眼睛。

(3)林語堂:林語堂指出了翻譯的三個標準,即:忠實(faithfulness)、通順( smoothness)與美(beautifulness)

林語堂(《論翻譯》,林語堂名著全集,1995:306)指出:翻譯的標準問題,大致包括三方面。我們可依三方面的次序討論。第一就是忠實標準,第二就是通順標準,第三就是美的標準。這翻譯的三層標準,與嚴氏的“譯事三難”,大體上就是正相比符的。……我們并須記得這

所包括的就就是:第一,譯者對原文方面的問題,第二,譯者對中文方面的問題,第三,就是翻譯與藝術文的問題。以譯者所負的責任言,第

一就是譯者對原著者的責任,第二就是譯者對中國讀者的責任,第三就是譯者對藝術的責任,三樣的責任全備,然后可以謂具有真正譯家的資格。

(4)傅雷:傅雷先生指出了神似(resemblance in spirit)的思想

傅雷(《高老頭》重譯本,1951)指出:以效果而論,(文學)翻譯應當像臨畫一樣,所求的不在神似而在形似。

(5)錢鐘書:錢鐘書提出了化境(reaching the acme of perfection)的思想

錢鐘書(《林紓的翻譯》,1964)指出:文學翻譯的最高境界就是“化”,把作品從一國文字轉變為另一國文字,既能不因語文習慣的差異而露出生硬牽強的痕跡,又能完全保存原有的風味,那就算得入于“化境”。十七世紀有人贊美這種造詣的翻譯,比為原作的“投胎轉

世(the transmigration of soul),軀殼換了一個,而精神姿致依然故我。換句話說,譯本對原作應該忠實得以至于讀起來不像譯本,因為作品在原文里絕不會讀起來像經過翻譯似的。

(6)劉重德:劉重德提出了翻譯的信、達、切(faithfulness、expressiveness and closeness)

劉重德(《渾金璞玉集》,1994:9)指出:信于內容( to be faithful to the content of the original);達如其分( to be as expressive as the original);

切合風格(to be as close to the original style as possible)

(7)許淵沖:許淵沖(《翻譯的藝術》, 1984:26)提出了翻譯的三重標準,如下表所示:

【外國翻譯家】

(1)泰特勒(Alexander Fraser Tytler)提出了翻譯的“三原則”:

英國著名翻譯理論家,亞歷山大·弗拉色·泰特勒,于1790 年在她的《翻譯原則探討》(Essay on the Principles of Translation)中提出

了如下的三個標準:

1、譯作應該完全傳達原作的思想(The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work)

2、譯作的風格與筆調應當與原作保持一致(The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the

original)

3、譯作應當與原文的一樣流暢(The translation should have all the ease of the original composition)

泰特勒隨后指出,上述“三原則”就是按照其重要性排位的,當上述三者不能兼得時,應采取第一原則或第二原則而忽視第三原則。

(2)奈達(Eugene A、 Nada)提出了翻譯的功能對等(Functional Equivalence)

美國著名的翻譯理論家奈達在其《語言與文化:翻譯語境》(2001:87)一書中提出了“功能對等”概念:

1、最低限度而又切合實際的功能對等定義:譯文讀者對譯文的理解應當能夠達到能夠想象出原文讀者就是怎樣理解與領會原文的程度。

(A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it、)

2、最高限度合乎想象的功能對等定義:譯文讀者應當能夠基本上按照原文讀者理解與領會原文的方式來理解與領會譯文。(A maximal, idealistic definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same

manner as the original readers did、)

(3)紐馬克(Peter Newmark)提出了“交際翻譯與語義翻譯”(Communicative and Semantic Translation)

英國著名翻譯理論家紐馬克在其《翻譯入門》(Approaches to Translation)( 1982/1988:39)中提出了“交際翻譯與語義翻譯”理論,即:

1、交際翻譯力圖對譯作讀者產生盡可能接近原作讀者所獲得的效果。(Communicative translation on the readers of the original、)

2、語義翻譯力圖在譯作語言的語義結構與句法結構允許的情況下,譯出原作在上下文中的準確意義。(Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structure of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original、)

標準低標準中標準高標準

內容忠實(信) 明確準確精確

(三似) 意似形似神似

(三化) 淺化等化深化

形式通順(達) 易懂通順揚長(雅或傳神)

1、4 翻譯策略

1、4、1 直譯(literal translation)與意譯(free translation)

直譯,也叫逐字翻譯(word-for-word translation), Baker(2001:125)認為,直譯就就是將譯出語文本切割為單個詞,并與譯入語文本中的詞語進行一一對應。而實際上,這種做法在大多數情況下就是行不通的。例如,一個只有在譯出語文化中才使用的孤立詞無法與不具備

譯出語文化的譯入語中的詞進行對應,即使能對應的上,譯文通常不具有可讀性。一般來說,所謂“直譯”都需要在兩種語言的文化差異上做一些必要的讓步。一般的操作方法就是,將譯出語與譯入語在孤立詞的使用上盡可能保持一致,在詞一致的基礎上再追求詞序的一致性。

意譯,也叫語義翻譯(sense-for-sense translation), Shuttleworth 與Cowie(1997:151)認為,意譯就就是要在超越譯出語文本詞匯等語言符號的基礎上,盡可能的傳達原文本中的精神。意譯法主要通過生成語言上與使用習慣上都趨向于譯入語的文本,以此適合譯入語讀者

的口味。

上個世紀八十年代,中國翻譯界學者達成了廣泛共識,認為直譯應該作為首選,同時,當直譯不能傳達譯出語文本勁精神、思想等時,應該酌情使用意譯。大量的翻譯實踐已經證明,直譯與意義并不就是相互排斥,而就是互為補充。

許淵沖先生(1984:5)指出,無論就是直譯還就是意意譯,都要符合原文“忠實、通順”的標準。

(1)當譯文的形式與原文的形式一致的時候,就無所謂意譯與直譯。

(2)當譯文的形式與原文的形式不一致的時候,就有意譯與直譯的問題,而且直譯可以有程度不同的直譯,意譯也有程度不同的意

譯。

■直譯法:把忠實于原文的內容放在第一位,把忠實于原文的形式放在第二位,把通順的譯文形式放在第三位。

(1)如果譯文與原文相同的形式能表達與原文相同的內容,可以直譯。

(2)如果原文的表達形式比譯文精確、有力,可以直譯,但要符合“忠實、通順”的標準。要吸收新鮮語,就要直譯。毛澤東(《反

對黨八股》)指出:要從外國語言中吸收我們所需要的成分,而且要吸收她們的新鮮用語。

■意譯法:把忠實于原文的內容放在第一位,把通順的譯文形式放在第二外,不拘泥于原文的形式。

(1)如果“忠實”與“通順”發生矛盾,那么就應該忠實于原文的內容放在第一位,把通順的譯文形式放在第二外,把忠實于原文

的形式放在第三位。

(2)如果譯文與原文相同的形式不能表達與原文相同的內容,一般意義。

(3)如果譯文的表達形式比原文精確、有力,可以意譯。

■硬譯法:如果不忠實于原文的內容,只忠實于原文的形式,那就不就是直譯,而就是硬譯。

■濫譯法:如果不忠實于原文的內容,只追求通順的譯文形式,那也不就是意譯,而就是濫譯。

1、4、2 異化翻譯(foreignizing translation)與歸化翻譯(domesticating translation)

上面所提到的直譯與意義都就是關注語言方面的轉換問題,下面要講到的異化與歸化翻譯,將更多的關注文化、語言與審美方面的需求。

異化翻譯:Venuti(1995:20)認為,異化翻譯即有意割裂譯出語與譯入語文本之間的聯系,用譯出語中的相關外來概念進行翻譯與

闡述,異化翻譯就是偏離民族主義路線的,對譯入語文化價值施加壓力,使其關注外語文本的語言與文化差異,把讀者帶入外國情景,體驗

外國人的閱讀感受。

換言之,異化翻譯要求譯者向原文作者靠攏,采取原文作者使用的表達方式傳達原文的內容。

歸化翻譯:Venuti(1995:20)認為,歸化譯法盡可能縮小譯出語文化與譯入語文化之間的差異,構建透明、流動自由的風格,使譯入語讀者能夠很快適應譯文內容并產生基于本民族文化的共鳴。歸化譯法采取民族中心主義的態度,就是外語文本符合譯入語的文化價值觀,

把原作者帶入譯入語文化。

換言之,歸化譯法要求譯者向譯文讀者靠攏,采取譯文讀者習慣的表達方式。

需要指明的就是,翻譯中歸化與異化的問題不同于直譯與意譯的問題,中國翻譯界的學者呈現“一邊倒”狀況,認為:異化與歸化都有其存在的合理性與必要性,不應該顧此失彼。郭建中(2000:287)也指出:

翻譯中的“歸化”與“異化”不僅就是不矛盾的,而且就是互為補充的。文化遺址需要多種方法與模式。應用翻譯的目的論理論(skopos theory),對翻譯中的設計的各種因素做綜合分析,譯者既可以采取“歸化”的原則與方法,也可以采用“異化”的原則與方法。至于在譯文中必須保留那些源語文化,怎樣保留,哪些源語文化的因素又必須做出調整以適應目的語文化,都可以在對作者意圖、翻譯目的、文本類型與讀者對象等因素分析的基礎上做出選擇。對譯者來說,重要的就是在翻譯過程中要有深刻的文化意識,即意識到兩種文化的異同。

必須指出兩點:一就是不論在當代或在歷史上,以目的語文化為歸宿的原則似乎就是占了上風。這就是因為評論家與出版商往往更瞧重譯作的可讀性,一般的讀者也喜歡讀通順易懂的譯文,而且,這一傾向也正好與翻譯研究發展的趨向相一致。二就是,隨著兩種文化接觸的日益

頻繁,以源語文化為歸宿的原則將越來越有可能廣泛地被應用,最終很可能會占上風,但不管怎樣發展,“歸化”與“異化”將永遠同時并存,缺一就不能稱之為翻譯。

二、禮貌用語模板

1開場白

1、開門時,一句禮貌的詢問會贏得一個良好的第一印象。

May I come in？(我可以進來不？)

2、向老師們問好,面帶微笑,朝氣蓬勃。

Good morning / afternoon, dear professors、 I am XXX、 (教授們早上好/下午好,我就是XXX)

3、幫幫提醒大家,適當的拍馬屁也就是很有必要的哦！

I am very happy that I am qualified for this interview、 It is a privilege to be speaking to you today、(很高興有機會參加這次面試,今天能跟您們談話真就是我的榮幸)

4、該向老師們作自我介紹了(自我介紹的模板幫幫也為大家整理好了喲)

It"s my great honor / pleasure to introduce myself to you here、(很榮幸/高興在這兒向大家作自我介紹)

2對話中

1、沒聽清或沒聽懂老師的問題？別擔心,禮貌地向老師詢問,老師們不會難為您的。

I"m sorry I didn"t hear that clearly、 May I ask you to repeat it, please？(對不起,我沒聽清楚,可否重復一遍)

I beg your pardon、 I don"t understand your question、(請原諒,我不太了解您的問題)

2、老師們沒聽明白您的回答或者誤解了您的意思,一定要表明就是自己的失誤,并及時補充。

Excuse me,I guess I don"t make myself clear、(對不起,我想就是我自己沒有表達清楚)

My I try to say that in another way、(或許我能試著用另一種方式說)

3、得到了老師的夸獎可不要飄飄欲仙哦,也許這就是老師對您的考驗呢。

Thank you for your compliment、 I am far from perfect、(您過獎了,我做得還不夠好)

3結束語

1、面試就就是聊天,結束時一定要表達自己聊得很開心。向老師們表達感謝當然也就是不可少的禮節。

That is my pleasure、 It"s been nice talking with you, professors、(這就是我的榮幸,與您交談真愉快,教授)

A thousand thanks for your talking with me、(萬分感謝您的面試)

2、對錄取的期待也要說出來哦,不能藏著掖著,老師當然想要強烈想當她研究生的學生。

If my application is successful, I assure that I would make every effort to be worthy of the confidence you may place in me、 Thank you very much、(如果被錄取,一定努力不辜負期望,謝謝)

I" ll expect for your notification, professors、 (我將期盼您的通知,教授)

I"ll look forward to hearing from you、(我將靜候您的回音)

三、自我介紹模板

模板二,比較簡潔。如果分配給自我介紹的時間不多,可以采用這一模板,簡單介紹自己的情況。

Good morning/afternoon/evening, my name is 、 It is really a great honor to have this opportunity/chance to introduce myself、 I would like to answer whatever you may raise, and I hope I can make a good performance today、

I am 23 years old, born in province Beijing, northeast southwest of china, and I am currently a senior(大四學生) student at Capital Institute of Physical Education、

My major is sports training of basketball、

In the past 3 years, I spend most of my time on study、 I have passed CET6 and I have acquired basic knowledge of sports training both in theory and in practice、

Besides, I have attended several sports meetings held in Beijing、 I am also the volunteers of China Tennis Open, Chinese Badminton Masters、 Through these I have a deeply understanding of my major—sports training、

I have lots of interest, such as singing, dancing, drawing and so on、

Thank you!

I always believe that one will easily lag behind unless he keeps on learning 、Of course, if I am given a chance to study XX in this famous University,I will stare no effort to master a good command of advance XX、

自我介紹模板四

模板四,就是一個比較綜合性的模板。每一段都可以拆分成為一個單獨的問題,導師在英語面試中關注的個人問題(比如家庭、家鄉、興趣、讀研之后的規劃等等)幾乎都包括在內,希望研研們好好閱讀,針對個人情況進行修改。

First let me introduce myself, my name is XX, 23 years old, and David is my English name、 I am open-minded, easy to adapt, compatible with my friends, and willing to help others、

I studied in XX University、 Although it is not well known, I still appreciate it, because it offers me a chance to develop my abilities、 During my college years, I have made rapid and great progress in many areas, as a student, I work very hard, and obtain scholarship many times, as a monitor, I work earnestly, also gain good comments from teachers and classmates, working as a member of Student Union, I strive to finish any assignment perfectly、 In a word, I learned a lot in my college life、

In my family, there are three members, my farther, my mother, and I、 My parents are workers, my father works very hard, and he is always fully occupied, so most of the housework is done by my mother, of course, while I am at home, I would help her、 I love my parents and they love me, too、 When I make a success, they are more excited than me, and support me to do better、 Even though I failed, instead of blaming, they always share sorrow with me, and encourage me not to give up、 During my preparation for graduate examination, the support from my family is always my momentum、 Parents" love is unselfish, I am deeply affected, so I will do all what I can to repay them、

My hometown is XX, a young city in XX Province、 It is famous for its XX and XX、 There are great scenes here, XX, XX, XX, and so on、 Each year, many people come here for tour and investment、 So I believe that, with the joint efforts of every person, a better future of XX is coming (round the corner)、

During the past four years, I have learned a lot of professional knowledge and practical skills, but gradually, I realize it is not enough、 In my opinion, further study is actually urgent for me to realize and finally achieve self-value、 Life is precious, it is necessary to catch any opportunity for self-development, especially in the competitive modern society、 Therefore, I prefer to go on for further education、

I am deeply impressed by the academic atmosphere when connecting to the web site of your department、 In addition, I am attracted by the process of XX, and want to do something for XX、 As the proverb says "process is the activity of today and the assurance of tomorrow、" If I got a chance to study here, I would like to continue to accept professional training, in order to get ready for working in the future、 I hope I can achieve my goal soon、

There must be many things to learn if I were enrolled into my ideal research field、 I hope I can build up a systematic view of XX, especially in the fields of XX、 Sincerely, my wish is to get a complete comprehension of XX、 On the other hand, I am dreaming of the participation of some relevant projects of my major, for this reason, I will get more experience in practice、 And what"s more, I expect to continue my study for doctorate degree, if it is possible、 In a word, I am looking forward to making up a solid foundation for future profession which is based on three years of study here、

In my spare time, I like reading books, collecting cards and coins, playing volleyball, communicating with friends, and so on、

I also like English very much, I am fond of watching English films and listening to English songs, I passed College English Test Band six in September, 2003, I do believe there is still a long way for me to learn English well enough, however I will not shrink back, Because I realize that English is a bridge connected our country with the outside world、 Learning English is the most direct and available method for intercourse among countries and also useful for us to get advanced knowledge and technology from other nations、

自我介紹模板五

模板五,就是比較中規中矩的模板。模板有些長,將自己的家鄉、大學情況介紹清楚;也就是比較受歡迎的一個模板。大家在準備的時候可以根據個人情況將每一個點都能寫成一個小段,老師可能在您介紹的時候打斷您,進行相關的提問。

Hello, my professors、It"s a fine day today,and I"m very pleased to meet you here、First of all,I"d like to introduce myself to you、My name is XX,my hometown is XX,which is a really beautiful city、Even when i was a young boy,I was very interested in biology science、Every one may have a dream,and I still remember that my dream is to be a biology scientist (just like ZHU KE ZHEN)、I liked to make wonders just like,where are we from?Where are we going in the universe?And then I would find the answers in book by myself、Still today I think that interest is the best teacher in one"s whole life (and knowledge comes from practice)、

Second, I will introduce my major in the university、My major is Biological Engineering in XX University、It has a great relationship with biology scince、Their relationship can be shown with an example: Just like a river,biology science,which often finds new discoveries and theories, is at the head of the river、And my major,which lays more stress on practical use, seems to be at the end of it、When both of them interact well enough,the discovries and theories in biology science can be soon turned into products in all of the modern industry、

Four years" university education gives me a lot of things to learn,a lot of chances to try,and a lot of practices to improve myself、It teaches me not only what to study and how to think,but also to see the importance of practical ability (such as doing expriment as much as possible)、 In the university life,I have made many good friends、They help me improve my study and research ability, do ererything just like a man,and often give me good example to follow、

Besides what I have introduced myself above,i also have many interests in my spare time、I like playing football,which is an effective way i think to improve my body health,and it can teach me how to join in a group and deal with other people、Drawing and writing is another favor to me、

Above all,I choose the major in order to broad my view in biology scince,and enhance my research ability、I will do my best to join the new group and be good at postgraduate study、

四、常見問題解答

What can you tell me about yourself?

這個問題并不就是要您介紹您的簡歷,老師就是希望您能通過一件小事,了解您的處理方式,從而瞧出您的性格、優勢,與哪位老師比較匹配等。

The following is a good example of a positive response、 "In high school I was involved in competitive sports and I always tried to improve in each sport I participated in、 As a college student, I worked in a clothing store part-time and found that I could sell things easily、 The sale was important, but for me, it was even more important to make sure that the customer was satisfied、 It was not long before customers came back to the store and specifically asked for me to help them、 I"m very competitive and it means a lot to me to be the best、"

What is your greatest strength

這個問題就是想要了解您對您的專業、對您的學校,包括對以后的研究生生活的自信程度,讓她們瞧到您作為研究生的優勢。

I feel that my strongest asset is my ability to stick to things to get them done、 I feel a real sense of accomplishment when I finish a job and it turns out just as I"d planned、 I"ve set some high goals for myself、 For example, I want to graduate with highest distinction、 And even though I had a slow start in my freshman year, I made up for it by doing an honor"s thesis、

3 What would you like to be doing five years after graduation?

畢業五年之后的規劃,這個問題您可以通過與學長學姐聊天或者同其她已經畢業的學生交流瞧瞧她們的做法,結合自身的優勢,給出您的回答。

I hope to do my best I can be at my job and because many in this line of work are promoted to area manager, I am planning on that also、

4 Why do you choose this major?

為什么選擇報考專業？這個問題就是老師比較喜歡的一個問題。需要您表達自己對專業的喜歡,現在開始可以多查瞧相關的專業文章,對專業術語了解清楚,在復試中會有加分的機會。

I major in International Trade and have great interest in it、 International trade currently become increasingly important in the world of globalization, and those companies desirous to into the international market and have to confront plenty of issues、 Thus, corresponding emphasis have been put on these issues in this field、 But during my college study and internship period, I have found I have many to study, so it is very necessary and urgent for me to grasp firmly and comprehensively the relevant knowledge of international trade、 That is why I chose this major、 Now I look forward to enriching my scope in this field in our university、

　1、 從大學翻譯課程里學到了什么?

① 國內外的翻譯史

② 一些知名的翻譯派別及其各自學說

③ 翻譯技巧

2、 知道哪些翻譯技巧？

① 加注(annotation):由于英漢文化存在許多差異,因此英語中某些文化詞語在漢語中根本就沒有對等詞,形成了詞義上的空缺。在這種情況下,英譯漢時常常要采用加注法來彌補空缺。加注通常可以用來補充諸如背景材料、詞語起源等相關信息,便于讀者理解。加注法可分為音譯加注與直譯加注兩種。

a、 音譯加注指音譯后附加解釋性注釋。注釋可長可短,可采用文中注釋,也可采用腳注,還可二者合用。

e、g、 Like a son of Bachus, he can drink up two bottles of whisky at a breath、

她簡直像酒神巴赫斯的兒子,能一口氣喝光兩瓶威士忌。

*巴赫斯就是古希臘神話中的酒神。

b、 直譯加注指直譯原文,并附加解釋性注釋。注釋可長可短,既可采用文中注釋,也可采用腳注,還可二者合用。例如:

e、g、 Big Apple 大蘋果(紐約的別稱)

e、g、 It was Friday *and soon they"d go out and get drunk、

星期五發薪日到了,她們馬上就要上街去喝得酩酊大醉。

*星期五[Friday]為英國的發薪日。如不解釋,譯入語讀者就不會明白英國人為什么要在這一天上街去大吃大喝。

② 增詞(amplification):英漢兩種語言由于表達方式不盡相同,翻譯時常常有必要在譯文的詞量上作適當的增加,使譯文既能忠實地傳達原文的內容與風格,又能符合譯入語的表達習慣。但就是增詞必須就是根據具體情況增加非增加不可的詞語。增詞一般用于以下三種情況:一就是為了語法上的需要;二就是為了意義上的需要;三就是為了修辭上的需要。

a、 語法上的需要:英語中沒有量詞,漢譯時就得根據漢語的表達習慣增加合適的量詞。

e、g、 The sun rose thinly from the sea、 一輪紅日從海邊淡淡升起。

b、 意義上的需要:英譯漢有時有必要增加合適的動詞、形容詞或副詞,使譯文意思明確。

e、g、 These early cars were slow, clumsy, and inefficient、

這些早期的汽車速度緩慢,行動笨拙,效率不高。(譯文中在形容詞前分別加上了三個名詞,既使譯文意思明確,又使它形成四字詞組,勻稱整齊。)

c、 修辭上的需要:為了使譯文優美自如、活潑生動或就是得到強調,有時有必要重復某些詞語或就是增加適當的描述詞、語氣助詞、重疊詞、承上啟下的詞、概括詞。

e、g、 Only very slight and very scattering ripples of half-hearted hand-clapping greeted him、

歡迎她的只有幾下輕輕地、零零落落、冷冷淡淡的掌聲。(疊詞)

③ 減詞(Omission):減詞就是指將原文中需要、而譯文中又不需要的詞語省去。減省的詞語應就是那些在譯文中保留下來反而使行文累贅嚕嗦、且不合漢語語言表達習慣的詞語。減詞一般用于以下兩種情況:一就是從語法角度進行減省;二就是從修飾角度進行減省。

a、 語法角度:英漢兩種語言在語法上差異較大,例如:英語有冠詞,而漢語卻沒有;英語重形合、連接詞較多,漢語重意合、連接詞較少;英語中介詞豐富,多達280多個,漢語中介詞則較少,只有30來個;英語中經常使用代詞,尤其就是經常使用人稱代詞、關系代詞等,而漢語中代詞則用得較少;因此,英譯漢時可根據具體情況將冠詞、連接詞、介詞、代詞略去,使譯文練達曉暢。

e、g、 As it is late, let us go to bed、不早啦,睡吧！

b、 修飾角度:有些詞語在英語里就是必不可少的,但在漢語中卻并非如此,如直譯成漢語則往往顯得累贅嚕嗦。為了使譯文簡潔曉暢、"文約而意豐",這樣的詞語必須省去或就是精簡。

e、g、 There was no snow, the leaves were gone from the trees, the grass was dead、

天未下雪,但葉落草枯。

④ 轉換(conversion):由于英漢兩種語言在語法與表達方式等方面存在著許多差異,因此英譯漢時常常有必要改變表達方式,使譯文通順流暢、地道可讀。這種變通技巧就就是轉換法(shift of perspective)。轉換的形式多種多樣,大體可分為7種:詞類轉換,句子成分轉換,表達方式轉換,自然語序與倒裝語序轉換;正面表達與反面表達轉換,主動式與被動式轉換,分句轉換。

⑤ 正說反譯,反說正譯(negation):

e、g、 The question is above me、 這個問題我答不上來。

3、 列舉中國一些翻譯大家(報考的學校里有些著名的教授與她們的翻譯作品)

陸谷孫,譯作:美國作家歐文?肖《幼獅》,英國作家達穆里埃《蝴蝶夢》

對于學生,陸谷孫先生有著自己的期望,她說,復旦的學生應該在基礎上更廣博一點,學的東西更多一點,這樣才能提高人文素養,實現通才的目標。現在,大家對于技術方面的知識掌握與敏感度要遠遠超過她們,但不像她們那么能吃苦,那么懂得滿足;而在學問上,也越來越不精細。現在,同學們在information上的地平線開闊很多,但就是,就是不就是思想上的地平線也相應開闊了呢？陸先生強調,大學生的平民意識非常重要,這與腦子里的精神貴族不矛盾。大家還就是要牢牢地扎根于grassroots。陸谷孫先生對記者說,"我的一些學生畢業后找到很好的工作,進了波士頓、麥肯錫之類的大公司,很高興地來告訴我。我對她們說,她們很快會失望的,她們不相信。但就是一兩年后,她們果然不快樂了。有的同學甚至回來告訴我,很后悔當時逃課,現在卻沒機會再聽課了。去年的一次交流會上,有人給我一張紙條,上面寫著:"What is your secret of success? Answer in no more than ten words、"我的回答就是:"In difference to success"、"

楊必《名利場》

4、 平時怎樣提高自己翻譯水平:

① 去譯言網

② 研讀名家譯文

5、 就是否讀過翻譯方面原著:

The Theory and Practice of Translating by Eugene Nida

6、 您知道哪些翻譯理論或者原則:

Dynamic equivalence (also known as functional equivalence) attempts to convey the thought expressed in a source text (if necessary, at the expense of literalness, original word order, the source text"s grammatical voice, etc、), while formal equivalence attempts to render the text word-for-word (if necessary, at the expense of natural expression in the target language)、 The two approaches represent emphasis, respectively, on readability and on literal fidelity to the source text、 There is no sharp boundary between dynamic and formal equivalence、 Broadly, the two represent a spectrum of translation approaches、

Because dynamic equivalence eschews strict adherence to the grammatical structure of the original text in favor of a more natural rendering in the target language, it is sometimes used when the readability of the translation is more important than the preservation of the original grammatical structure、 Thus a novel might be translated with greater use of dynamic equivalence so that it may read well, while in diplomacy or in some business settings people may insist on formal equivalence because they believe that fidelity to the grammatical structure of the language equals greater accuracy、

Formal equivalence is often more goal than reality, if only because one language may contain a word for a concept which has no direct equivalent in another language、 In such cases a more dynamic translation may be used or a neologism may be created in the target language to represent the concept (sometimes by borrowing a word from the source language)、

The more the source language differs from the target language, the more difficult it may be to understand a literal translation、 On the other hand, formal equivalence can sometimes allow readers familiar with the source language to see how meaning was expressed in the original text, preserving untranslated idioms, rhetorical devices (such as chiastic structures in the Hebrew Bible), and diction、

The new focus has shifted from the form to the response of the receptor、 Therefore, what one must determine is the response of the receptor to the translated message、 This response must then be compared with the way in which the original receptors presumably reacted to the message when it was given in the original setting、

功能對等Functional Equivalence

但這位在學術界赫赫有名的人物,偏偏遠離學術重鎮,默默地在美國圣經協會供職半個多世紀。她一生的主要學術活動都圍繞《圣經》翻譯展開。在《圣經》翻譯的過程中,奈達從實際出發,發展出了一套自己的翻譯理論,最終成為翻譯研究的經典之一。奈達理論的核心概念就是“功能對等”。所謂“功能對等”,就就是說翻譯時不求文字表面的死板對應,而要在兩種語言間達成功能上的對等。

為使源語與目的語的之間的轉換有一個標準,減少差異,尤金?A?奈達從語言學的角度出發,根據翻譯的本質,提出了著名的“動態對等”翻譯理論,即“功能對等”。在這一理論中,她指出“翻譯就是用最恰當、自然與對等的語言從語義到文體再現源語的信息”(郭建中,2000,P65)。奈達有關翻譯的定義指明翻譯不僅就是詞匯意義上的對等還包括語義、風格與文體的對等,翻譯傳達的信息既有表層詞匯信息也有深層的文化信息。“動態對等”中的對等包括四個方面:1、詞匯對等,2、句法對等,3、篇章對等,4、文體對等。在這四個方面中,奈達認為“意義就是最重要的,形式其次”(郭建中,2000,P67)。形式很可能掩藏源語的文化意義并阻礙文化交流。因此,在文學翻譯中,根據奈達的理論,譯者應以動態對等的四個方面作為翻譯的原則準確地在目的語中再現源語的文化內涵。

為了準確地再現源語文化與消除文化差異,譯者可以遵循以下的三個步驟。第一,努力創造出既符合原文語義又體現原文文化特色的譯作。然而,兩種語言代表著兩種完全不同的文化,文化可能有類似的因素,但不可能完全相同。因此,完全展現原文文化內涵的完美的翻譯作品就是不可能存在的,譯者只能最大限度地再現源語文化。第二,如果意義與文化不能同時兼顧,譯者只有舍棄形式對等,通過在譯文中改變原文的形式達到再現原文語義與文化的目的。例如,英語諺語“white as snow”翻譯成漢語可以就是字面意義上的“白如雪”。但就是,中國南方幾乎全年無雪,在她們的文化背景知識中,沒有“雪”的概念,如何理解雪的內涵?在譯文中,譯者可以通過改變詞匯的形式來消除文化上的差異。因此,這個諺語在漢語中可以譯作“白如蘑菇”,“白如白鷺毛”(郭建中,2000,P63)。再如,英語成語“spring up like mushroom”中“mushroom”原意為“蘑菇”,但譯為漢語多為“雨后春筍”,而不就是“雨后蘑菇”,因為在中國文化中,人們更為熟悉的成語與理解的意象就是“雨后春筍”。第三,如果形式的改變仍然不足以表達原文的語義與文化,可以采用“重創”這一翻譯技巧來解決文化差異,使源語與目的語達到意義上的對等。“重創”就是指將源語的深層結構轉換成目的語的表層結構(郭建中,2000,P67),也就就是將源語文章的文化內涵用譯語的詞匯來闡述與說明。例如:“He thinks by infection, catching an opinion like a cold、”“人家怎么想她就怎么想,就像人家得了傷風,她就染上感冒。”(劉宓慶,1998,P122)在此句的英文原文中,原文的內涵并不就是靠詞匯的表面意義表達出來的,而就是隱藏在字里行間里。

因此,如按照英漢兩種語言字面上的對等來翻譯,原句譯為“她靠傳染來思維,象感冒一樣獲得思想”,這樣,原文的真正意義就無法清楚地表達。事實上,在漢語中很難找到一個完全與英文對等的句型來表達同樣的內涵。于就是,譯者將源語的深層結構轉換成目的語的表層結構,即用目的語中相應的詞匯直接說明、解釋原文的內涵,以使譯文讀者更易接受譯作。根據奈達的翻譯理論,文化差異的處理就是與從語義到文體將源語再現于目的語緊密相聯的。只有當譯文從語言形式到文化內涵都再現了源語的風格與精神時,譯作才能被稱作就是優秀的作品。

張美芳教授1999年在其論文“從語境分析瞧動態對等論的局限性”中指出,奈達提出的“動態對等”存在某種程度上的缺陷。她以分析查良鏞先生寫在香港回歸之日的一篇文章為基礎指出,在下列情況下,“動態對等”不能取得:

“原文與譯文的目的不一致時,其功能不可能對等;接受者的文化背景與閱讀經驗不相同時,讀者反應不可能對等;譯語語篇的交際者及其之間的關系與原語語篇的不相同,譯文風格有可能隨之變化。”

7、 Do you know the difference between dynamic equivalence and functional equivalence? Do you know formal equivalence? Do you have you own translation criteria?

8、 對翻譯的理解;

9、 選擇翻譯的理由;

10、 個人素養(包括中英文背景知識——讀過的文學書籍等、翻譯理論的了解、翻譯過的東西);

11、 對MTI的理解與讀MTI期間的打算;對未來的規劃;MTI學習同您的規劃之間的關系。12、 其她的可能因人而異,比如說個人經歷同翻譯的關系等等

Would u introduce yourself?

可以考慮首先介紹基本信息,包括姓名,家鄉,學校,愛好,性格,以及為何考研?為何選擇這個專業?為何選擇這個學校等。

模板:

Morning, distinguished professors、 It"s a fine day today, and I"m very pleased to meet you here、 First of all, I"d like to introduce myself to you、 my name is XX, 23 years old, and David is my English name、 I studied in XX University、

I am open-minded, creative,get along well with my friends, and willing to help others、 As a member of Student Union,I work earnestly,also get some good comments from teachers and classmates as well as obtain scholarship many times 、

Even when I was a young boy, I was very interested in translation、 Everyone may have a dream, and I still remember that my dream is to be a interpreter、 If I’m lucky enough to get the chance, I will devote all myself to my major and focus all my energy on it、

3

介紹一下自己的大學

Could you talk about your college!

盡量表達對母校的感激之情,從大學四年中學習的有用知識或與專業相關的技能。

模板:

Shandong University of Technology was founded in 1956 and was one of the first public colleges certified to confer the bachelor"s degree by China "s Department of State、 The university is under the direct leadership of the Shandong Provincial Government and is located in Zibo city where the ancient and profound Qi culture originated、 The number of the students is 40000 now。She is an engineering-oriented school、

4

您的翻譯工作經歷

Do you have any relevant practice experiences?

這個問題盡量切合實際,有過翻譯經驗可以簡單描述過程,重點表達學習到的技能,如果沒有這類經歷,也可體現出自己做過的翻譯實踐,有思考,有想法也可表達出來。

模板:

I have been employed to a translation company after graduation from my college, and my main task is to do some translation and edition works、 After having whetted my skills at a translation agency for some time, I find that the time has come for me to deepen my study in this field、

5

您認識許淵沖先生么?

每個院校導師常會問您認識哪些翻譯大家及她們的作品,這也就是每個學翻譯的童鞋必備知識,所以大家需要整理出耳熟能詳的幾位中國翻譯家的材料,如:林紓、魯迅、董樂山、朱生豪等等。

許淵沖就是當代中國著名的翻譯家。許淵沖從事文學翻譯幾十年間,許淵沖把眾多中國經典與詩詞曲賦翻譯成英語、法語介紹到國外,使世界了解了《西廂記》《牡丹亭》《長生殿》《桃花扇》,體會到唐詩、宋詞、元曲的精妙,領悟到《詩經》《楚辭》《論語》《老子》中的內涵,已出版中英法譯著120余部。2010年,許淵沖獲得中國翻譯協會頒發的“翻譯文化終身成就獎”。

許先生著名的“三美”原則可譯為:Three Beauties Principle “音美”,“意美”,“形美”可以譯為:the beauty in sense, sound and form或者就是beauty of phonology, beauty of formality and beauty of style

6您的家庭(about family)

模板:

There are four members in my family: my parents, my XXX and me、 My father is a technician in XXX、 He often goes out on business and therefore, most of the housework is done by my industrious mom、 Climbing at weekends is our common interest、 The fresh air and natural beauty can help us get rid of tiredness、 They can strengthen our relation, too、During my prepareing for coming here, my parents’love and support have always been my power and I hope in the future I wil be able to repay them、

介紹您的家鄉(about hometown)

模板:

I am from XXX, a famous city with a long history over 2,200 years、 It is called XXX because there were lots of XXX even 900 years ago、 The city lies in the eastern part of the province、 It is the center of politics, economy and culture、 Many celebrities were born here, for instance, Da lian and 、 、 You know, there is a saying that “The greatness of a man lends a glory to a place”、 I think the city really deserves it、 In addition, it is famous for the hot springs、 They are known for high-quality、 Visitors at home and abroad feel it comfortable bathing here、There is my beloved hometown、

研究生期間您的計劃 (plans in the postgraduate study)

A translator converts text from one language into another language、 Being a good interpreter or translator, however, involves more than just translating a language、, I hope I can be form fluent in two or more languages in order to become an interpreter or a translator、If possible, I will take part in some relevant internships to improve my translation and interpretation skills、 Then I also have an aspiration to obtain certification of CATTI、 In a word, I am looking forward to making a solid foundation for future profession after two years study here、

9

Where do you want to go travelling?

模板:

參考答案1:My favorite place is the Lianfeng Mountain Park, which locates in the small Bei Daihe city、 You can enjoy thefresh air among the brushy trees as well as the birds’ singing、 Moreamazingly, it doesn‘t take long to go to the seaside、 Just imagine the blue skyand ocean together with the beautiful sunshine on the beach、 It would be soromantic、

參考答案2:It has always been my dream to gotravelling in Jiuzhaigou, which is the most famous tourist attraction in myhometown、 Ancient Chinese legend says that the goddess Semo accidentallysmashed her mirror there and the pieces formed beautiful lakes, streams andwaterfalls、 Jiuzhaigou is one of the very few surprisingly peaceful andtraditional scenic spots、 The scenery here is pretty spectacular and breath-taking、

如何成為一名合格的譯員how to be a good translator?

模板:

a、Familiarize yourself with the culture from which the language you are interpreting originates、 This will help you to better understand the person for whom you are interpreting so that you can make his words and meaning more clear、

b、Study vocabulary words for both languages consistently、 This is especially important when translating documents、

c、Take notes and study the subject matter in which you will be required to translate or interpret、 For example, If your job is to interpret at a conference on heart disease, it will be helpful to obtain a copy of the agenda so that you can research any words or concepts with which you are currently unfamiliar、

d、Practice good communication and customer service skills、 Your goal is to make both parties feel comfortable with one another while you help to express their wants and needs、 An interpreter also needs to be able to be comfortable in many environments、 You may be required to work in a school, a courtroom or a hospital、

e、Volunteer to gain more experience and to keep your skills sharp、 Social services offices, hospitals, churches and private organizations appreciate help from interpreters and translators、 Some jobs also require several years of experience, which you can obtain through volunteering on a regular basis、

f、Attain a certification, which demonstrates that you have attained proficiency、

【篇2】入黨理論知識2019

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